Political

=Political= toc

Government Structure

 * ===EGYPT=== || ====__Old Kingdom__====
 * Pharaoh: Absolute Power, Divine, Rules according to Ma'at
 * Major droughts in 5th dynasty cause #|loss of faith in Pharaoh
 * Vizier: Second in command
 * Nomarchs: Local rulers who ruled nomes; answer to pharaoh
 * Gain power in 5th Dynasty resulting in decentralization and loss of power for Pharaoh
 * 42 nomarchs in total
 * Commoners.

__Middle Kingdom__

 * Coregency is established
 * So everyone knows which heir is to be Pharaoh
 * So the son knows the duties of the Pharaoh
 * #|For the people to gain faith in the Pharaoh
 * Instructions were composed to help the new Pharaoh reign prosperously
 * Ensure stability
 * Hereditary Nomarchs (Less power for pharaoh)
 * Pharaohs become fatherly kind figures.
 * Stability measures taken.

__New Kingdom__

 * Beauracracy
 * decisions made by higher officials
 * #|New focus on imperialism.
 * Pharaohs become military leaders
 * used propaganda to gain support and had to prove themselves
 * Viziers become chosen for military skills as opposed to relationship with the king. ||
 * ===CHINA=== || ====__Shang__====
 * Heartland and Allied Chieftans
 * Centralization
 * Feudalism in heartland with Shang estate holders
 * Lack of loyalty to king and China among Allied Chieftans
 * enemy tribes were given the suffix -fang
 * King is the political, religious, and military leader (Zi clan)

__Western Zhou__

 * Mandate of Heaven
 * strengthens king's position by claiming them to be the Son of Heaven
 * Previous ruler is claimed to be evil
 * Zhou Clan
 * Feudalism continues
 * Zhou relatives govern regions (#|estates) for king.
 * Some Zi clan #|members allowed to hold #|estates in order to contunue praying to their ancestors but the emphasis turned more to the nature gods
 * Rituals, #|law, #|education, public works
 * Shift from individual tribes to political states.

__Spring and Autumn Period__

 * States fought each other to gain power.
 * King becomes more superficial {like the Queen of England even though the queen of england has a lot of power she just doesn't use it} and performs religious rites only.
 * Estate Holders become lords and more important
 * hegemon was elected to have temporary rule over China to defeat invaders
 * king wasn't selected hegemon (shows his deteriorating power)
 * **Duke Huan of Qi**
 * Appointed hegemon, maintained position for 40 years.
 * Made Guan Zhong second in command and honorary uncle as to #|give him land and titles

__Warring States__

 * 7 major states engage in shifty alliances. All lords claimed "King" title, but none "Son of Heaven"
 * Superiority measured by:
 * Wealth (bronze vessels, bells, etc.)
 * Military strength (# of chariots etc.)
 * Prestige (Connection to Zhou clan)
 * focused on advancements, including agriculture

__Qin__
> standardized)
 * Emperor
 * Theoretically maintain absolute power but incorperate key officials.
 * Legalism: all laws applied equally without favoritism. Strictly enforced rewards and punishments.
 * "People are naturally self interested, if you make what you want in someone's best interest, they will do it."
 * burned all books except agriculture, divination, and medicine
 * Allows more to get done (standardizing weights and measures, connecting Great Wall, uniform coinage, specified axle width of carts, Writing
 * Officials were appointed, no longer hereditary.
 * Centralization was emphasized

__Han__

 * Farmers held in higher respect in social class, while merchants were not even though they are wealthier.
 * Initially gave estate holders too much power before shortening the leash.
 * Government gave positions in **bureaucracy**to sons of common farmers etc.( due to Liu Bang)
 * Positions determined by **Civil Service Exams**: tested knowledge on History, Philosophy, Literature, Manners, and Language.
 * 1/3,000 passed, the higher the score, the better the job.
 * Harder for ruler to make changes b/c it has to pass through the gov't
 * Abolished harsh Qin laws, cut taxes dramatically, repealed legalism and replaced with Confucius based justice system.
 * Liu bang treats people virtuously (Confucianist values) ||
 * ===ASSYRIA=== || "Land of Ashur"
 * Monarchy
 * Worship of Ashur as high God
 * Provincial System (later taken by Persians)
 * Ruled by force and brutality
 * Took hostages to homeland that lead to polyglot society
 * Harsh public examples keep people in line ||
 * ===BABYLON=== || * Oppressive expansion
 * Not religiously tolerant
 * Fell with: Nabonidus to Cyrus
 * Cyrus was welcomed into the city ||
 * ===MEDIA=== || * Cyraxes II led overthrow of Assyrians
 * Allied w/ Babylonians
 * Religious beliefs shown with eclipse during attack on Lydia
 * Weak government and little control over conquered territories
 * Astyages unpopular with all Median classes ||
 * ===PERSIA=== || * Great King
 * Had absolute power, expected to rule by tradition and consult nobles for advice
 * Lead decadent and distant lifestyle, built luxurious palaces
 * Fair and Kind rulers
 * Satraps: Ruled Satrapies
 * Later Persian ruler didn't allow military freedom to Satraps
 * Separate Military generals who reported directly to the Great King
 * Great King allowed religious freedom within the Satrapies
 * Darius I
 * Reorganized satrapies
 * Standardized taxation
 * Created standardized coinage (Darics)
 * Built Royal Road and Canal
 * Minor conquests (Thrace and Macedonia)
 * Use of paid foreign mercenaries
 * Failed to conquer the Greeks
 * Built Persepolis using paid workers
 * Darius III Last Persian Ruler ||
 * ===**GREECE**=== || * ====Minoans====
 * Palace complexes - government center
 * No walls, "biggest bully"
 * Power from sea
 * Received tribute from other civilizations
 * Mysterious collapse
 * ====Mycenaeans====
 * Southern mainland - Mycenae
 * Confederacy of small kingdoms
 * ====Dark Age====
 * No centralized government or law code
 * Lose knowledge of writing
 * Cities abandoned
 * Very localized aristocratic oligarchy
 * ====Archaic====
 * Rise of city-states
 * Tyranny gradually replaces aristocratic oligarchy
 * Economic discontent + Hoplite warfare = Political Upheaval
 * =====Sparta=====
 * 2 Kings - Primarily generals
 * Kept in check by Ephors
 * Only on eking would go on campaigns with troops
 * 5 Ephors - Annually elected officials
 * Supervised training and conduct
 * Acted as judges in civil disputes
 * Presided over assemblies
 * Gerousia - Council of elders, 28 members (men over 60)
 * Served for life
 * Appela - Assembly of adult Spartiate males
 * Voted yes or no for proposals with out debate
 * Elected Ephors and Gerousia
 * =====Tyranny in Athens=====
 * Athenian aristocratic oligarchs grow nervous and give Solon total power for 1 year, to fix all of Athens' problems. In order for the oligarchs to withhold power.
 * Was not enough
 * People overthrow oligarchs and establish Pisistratus as tyrant over Athens
 * Improves trade
 * Son is overthrown
 * ====Classical Period====
 * =====Athenian Democracy=====
 * Cleisthenes creates 10 tribes to dilute aristocratic influence (501 BCE)
 * Each tribe annually elects a general and randomly selects 50 members of the Boule
 * Each a mix of mountain, city, and shore
 * Prytany
 * Day-to-day administration, worked for 1 month, lived in Tholos, daily chairman.
 * Council members were chosen by lot, except for the strategoi
 * Boule
 * Council of 500, selected by allotment, prepared agenda for the Ekklesia, supervised all officials, met everyday that wasn't a holiday.
 * Strategoi: 10, no time limit, not usually ostracized, loop hole.
 * Ekklesia: all voters are members vote by show of hands, influenced by persuasive speakers called demogogues, met 2-4 time per month.
 * =====Pericles' Reforms=====
 * Empower Athens: tried to establish a land empire, move Delian League treasury to Athens.
 * Increase Participation in Democracy: payment for serving as a government official or juror, expanded number of offices open to lower class citizens.
 * Enhance Prestige of Athens: Building projects like the Parthenon and the Long Walls.
 * ====Hellenistic Period====
 * =====Philip II of Macedon=====
 * Plan was to conquer Greece and Persia.
 * =====Alexander the Great=====
 * Conquers Persia.
 * Alexander dies and his empire is broken up.
 * =====The Hellenistic Kingdoms=====
 * Antigonid: Sought to retain control of Greece without conquest.
 * Attalid Kingdom of Pergamum: Split off from the Seleucids. Sought Roman help against Antigonids and Seleucids.
 * Seleucid: Largest of the kingdoms, gradually lost Eastern territories, Peragmum split off, gained control of Palestine from the Ptolemies.
 * Ptolemaic: Dynasty of pharaohs, sister-marriage, lasted the longest, ends with Cleopatra VII.
 * The New Monarchies
 * No longer democratic --> ruling class of Greeks and Macedonians.
 * If you spoke Greek, you were higher class.
 * Maintain power through force.
 * Two tier system: Greeks and Macedonians on top, everyone else below. ||
 * ===**ROME**=== || * ====Monarchy====
 * =====Tarquin the Proud=====
 * Last of the 7 kings
 * Etruscan
 * Rape of Lucretia
 * People rallied to overthrow the king.
 * The king was above the law.
 * ====The Early Republic====
 * The aristocrats held power.
 * Over time, the plebeians gain power.
 * Intermarriage permitted.
 * Office of the Tribune established.
 * Power to veto.
 * Plebiscites in 287 BCE
 * Achieved by refusing to fight at crucial times.
 * The aristocratic oligarchy was dominated by patricians, as the plebeians gain more rights, the purple and gray triangles merge together.
 * =====Cursus Honorum (bottom to top)=====
 * Quaestor- financial administrators of armies or cities, if they lost money they had to pay it back.
 * Tribune - Plebeian office, right to veto.
 * Aedile- Oversaw markets, oversaw upkeep of buildings, paid for public entertainment, cost a lot of their money.
 * Praetor - Judges, watch over trials.
 * Consul - Two leaders of Rome, one acted as general, one as ruler.
 * Censor- In charge of making one census over 5 year term, kept track of who could vote and which group they were in, had the right to remove senators.
 * Propraetor- Provincial judge.
 * Proconsul- Provincial consul, could earn lots of money.
 * Have imperium.
 * Must be plebeian.
 * =====Paths to Advancement=====
 * Patronage- Clients
 * Donations- Paying for buildings etc.
 * Fame- Leading a successful military campaign.
 * Marriage- Marry higher class, patrician or richer person.

>>> controlled the Senate, thought the problem was the power of the tribunes and Plebeian Assembly, and thought the solution was to restore power to the Senate. >> >> Comparisons** 1) Egypt, China, and Persia's Rulers all started off with absolute power over everything, but as the Empire's started to fall, less and less power were given to the kings and distributed among different people. 2) All have Provincial systems
 * The Late Republic
 * around the time of the punic wars
 * =====Political Division=====
 * Optimates- mostly nobiles,(families that usually hold political office)
 * Populares- Ambitious aristocrats seeking an alternate path to power, used the Plebeian Assembly and position of tribune, thought the problem was plight of the poor, landless citizens (tenant farmers & urban poor), and though the solution was to give them land and other assistance.
 * =====Gracchi Brothers=====
 * Tiberius- land reforms
 * Gauis- continued land reforms, gave law courts to equestrians instead of Senate.
 * =====Marius=====
 * Populares military reforms.
 * Novus Homo- fist man in a family to hold an office.
 * =====Sulla=====
 * Dictator- he claimed there was an emergency, even though there really wasn't.
 * Brought his army into the city (illegal) and served for longer than 6 months.
 * Published a proscription list.
 * Decreased the power of the tribunes and assemblies, and expanded the Senate to 600.
 * Expanded the authority of the Senate and rewarded them his supporters with land of the people killed on the proscription list a small, private auctions.
 * He then retired. He showed others that you could use an army loyal to you to take control. Marius' reforms made this possible.
 * =====Crassus and Pompey=====
 * Crassus- became very rich from buying up the property of the people Sulla executed, put down slave revolt led by Spartacus.
 * Pompey- "teenage butcher" because of his role in Sulla's executions, military hero, very popular.
 * Together as Consuls
 * They had supported Sulla, but they undid most of his work.
 * Restored power to Tribunes and Plebeian Assembly.
 * The Plebeian Assembly granted Pompey military campaigns
 * Pompey expected the Senate to reward his troops with land, but they Optimates refused because they thought it would make him too powerful.
 * =====The First Triumvirate=====
 * An alliance between Pompey, Caesar, and Crassus.
 * They all benefited from it:
 * Caesar was elected consul (59 BCE).
 * Pompey's soldiers got their land.
 * Crassus' allies get rewarded.
 * Caesar gains a military command in Gaul.
 * In 55 BCE, Crassus and Pompey hold consulship together and gain military campaigns for all of them.
 * Caesar gains fame by defeating the Gauls and writing about it in __The Gallic Wars__.
 * Caesar returns to Rome to run for consul, but brings his army even though the Senate told him not to.
 * In 49 BCE, the Senate sends Pompey to confront Caesar, civil war, Pompey loses.
 * =====Caesar=====
 * Forces the Senate to make him dictator.
 * Enacted populist reforms:
 * Increased Senate to 900.
 * Granted to citizenship to supporters in the provinces.
 * Founded colonies, giving land to poor citizens,
 * Funded public works projects that helped create jobs.
 * Required that 1/3 of workers on latifundia were free, not slaves.
 * Created the Julian calendar based on the Egyptian solar year.
 * Made dictator for life in 44 BCE.
 * Assassinated by a group of optimates senators because they feared he was making himself king.
 * His death led to years of civil war.
 * =====The Second Triumvirate=====
 * Octavian, Mark Antony, and Lepidus.
 * Took control, proscribed enemies, hunted down Caesar's assassinators.
 * Octavian and Mark Antony split control of the Empire.
 * Mark Antony fell in love with Cleopatra
 * Octavian fueled the Romans' fear that they would unite against Rome.
 * Octavian defeats Mark Antony and Cleopatra and gains sole control of the Empire.
 * ====The Empire====
 * ==== Augustus ====
 * After civil war, becomes ruler.He gives up all dictatorial powers so he does not look so power hungry and got title Augustus. Maintained allusion that he worked with the Senate and was Princeps or first among equals.
 * Tiberius
 * Tried to continue Augustus' policies but was unsuccessful.He was too paranoid to rule well.
 * Caligula
 * A king who was obsessed with power, he even wanted horse to be consul.
 * Killed by Praetorian Guards.
 * Claudius
 * Praetorian guard put him to power after he was found hiding behind a curtain.
 * Poisoned by wife, Agrippina
 * Nero
 * Killed his wife and stepbrother and he blamed The Great Fire on the Christians.
 * Army revolted after he killed popular generals, and he did suicide.
 * Vespasian
 * Used army to take power of Rome ending the Year of the Four Emperors.
 * Titus
 * He put down a Jewish revolt and squashed the temple.
 * Finished the Colosseum.
 * Domitian
 * Despised the Senate, no consultation with them.
 * Assassinated by wife leaving no successor.
 * Nerva
 * Established a pattern of succession with adoption, great relationship with Senate, focused on helping the poor.
 * Trajan
 * First emperor from Spain
 * Brought empire to largest territorial extent ever.
 * Hadrian
 * More defensive military stance withdrew from Mesoptamia.
 * Travelled more than any emperor.
 * Antonius Pius
 * Raised taxes and instituted conscription to deal with frontier wars and plague.
 * Wrote Meditations.
 * Let throne go to son, not an adopted successor.
 * =====Commodus=====
 * Breaks pattern of adopting succesor by being the son of the previous emperor, Marcus Aurelius
 * Extorted money from the rich with treason trials
 * =====Pertinax=====
 * Put in power by the praetorian guard, who assassinated Commodus
 * Reforms to quickly
 * Didius Julianus
 * Gains power through winning an auction
 * =====Septimius Severus=====
 * Gains power through defeating the other generals during the civil war
 * Had to give into all of the military's demands because if he did not he would be overthrown
 * Starts the downward spiral of having to pay the military more thus having to tax the citizens more
 * Gave officers government positions
 * =====Caracalla=====
 * Gives citizenship to all freeborn citizens in the Roman empire
 * Results in having to hire Germanic mercenaries because there is no benefit of citizenship anymore for being in the military
 * =====Military Anarchy=====
 * 22 emperors in 50 years
 * =====Diocletian=====
 * Gains power through the defeat of the other emperors during the military anarchy
 * Divides emperor in half
 * Each half has an Augustus and a Caesar to rule over the empire
 * The tetrarchy
 * Has to micro-manage the empire to get it back on track
 * Senate reduced to town council and max prices set on materials to limit the inflation
 * =====Constantine=====
 * Defeats other tetrarchs and unites the empire once again
 * Moves the capital to Constantinople
 * ====Fall of the West====
 * Divided again into East and West
 * Rome sacked twice
 * First by the Visigoths then by the Vandals
 * Odoacer becomes emperor after the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus
 * Zeno then gets Theodoric to overthrow Odoacer
 * Justinian later takes rule as the Eastern Roman Emperor
 * Reunites parts of Rome
 * Makes a law code
 * Long-Institute Short-Digest
 * Roman emperor then eventually disintegrates into many Germanic Kingdoms ||
 * Reunites parts of Rome
 * Makes a law code
 * Long-Institute Short-Digest
 * Roman emperor then eventually disintegrates into many Germanic Kingdoms ||
 * For example: When Egypt started to decline, the nomarchs started becoming hereditary and the Pharaoh got less power
 * In Persia the Satraps became hereditary showing decrease in power of the Great King
 * Megabyzus rebels against Persian Gov't showing how weak it really is
 * March of 10,000 also shows internal decline in power
 * In China drastic decentralization occured during the Eastern Zhou dynasty
 * Lords have more power than King
 * Egypt: Nomes and Nomarchs
 * China: Estate Holders and Lords
 * Persia: Satrapies and Satraps