Religious: Alexandra McCorkle, Sarah Sukin, Sarah Jacobson

Egypt

Overview of the Gods:

• Osiris

• 
• Horus
• 
• Isis
• 
• Ma'at
• 
• Seth
• 
• Ra
• 
• Amon
• 
• Hapi
• 
• Atum
• 
• Ptah
• 
• Khonsu
• Mut
• Thoth
• 
• Anubis
• 
• Bast
• 
• Hathor
• 
• Sekhmet
• 
• Aten
• Nephthys

Old Kingdom:

• Pharaoh seen as earthly Horus, and seen as Osiris in the afterlife
• Only Pharaohs and some high officials could reach the afterlife
  • built large tombs and had elaborate burials to ensure passage: mastabas, pyramids, etc
    • Maat-if the cycle of Osiris and Horus (the pharaoh's transition) was disturbed everything was in jeopardy and unbalanced
  • If you were buried near the pharaoh, the ability to reach the afterlife could "rub off on you"
  • Mummification
  • buried on the west bank of the Nile
  • Near the end of the kingdom, nomarchs began to be buried away from the pharaoh's tomb
• In the 5th and 6th dynasties, pharaohs began building sun temples for Ra

Middle Kingdom:

• democratization of the afterlife
  • Afterlife no longer just for pharaoh
    • mastabas of officials are built farther away from the pyramids- independence
  • budget burials and coffin texts
  • Osiris is now the judge of the dead

New Kingdom:

• Began building large cult temples
  • Karnak and Luxor
  • dedicated to deities or the living pharaoh as a god
  • located on the east side of the Nile
• Memorial temples were built for dead Pharaohs
  • Hapshepsut's temple at Dair-el Bahri
  • continued sacrificing the the pharaoh at these temples
  • located on the west side of the Nile
• Large underground tombs for burial
  • Seti's tomb, Ramses II's tomb, and Tutankhamen's tomb
• Amon and Ra combined for the high god Amun-Ra
• Negative confession used as a trick to help passage into afterlife

Akhenaten's Religious Reforms:

• Began monotheistic worship of the sun disk god Aten
• Aten was the creator
• Shut down cult temples during his reign and took wealth from them
• Horemheb reverted back to the original religion and erased the pharaohs before him

China:

Shang:

• King oversaw the religious activities
• Worship of Ancestors and Nature gods
  • Ancestors seen as gods, the more distant (older) they were, the more powerful they became
    • male and female were worshipped
    • Nature gods may have been distant ancestors
  • They influenced the health of the people, weather, Yellow River etc.
  • God of Di- highest god, but only god that does not need sacrifice
• Sacrifices to the gods consisted of animals or war captives
• Oracle bones
  • King interpreted them
  • Asked a question then would take a hot poker and make cracks, then the cracks would be interpreted for the answer of the question
  • Asked both negatively and positively to be sure of the answers
  • Led to a limited view of society for historians
• If answer was an opposing answer they would sometimes ask again

Western Zhou:

• Mandate of Heaven
  • provides legitimacy for the Zhou rulers
  • King is the "Son of Heaven"
  • if rulers not following by the way of heaven- the gods would send a sign (natural disasters) or a coup will be successful
  • Claims that the last ruler of every dynasty was evil
• Also sacrificed to Shang Ancestors, giving them a little land to do so, so people would not freak out (Shang Estate Holders)
  • After the Zi Clan revolted, they were no longer given this opportunity
  • They also lost their privilege to be an estate holder
• Heaven now was more generic, it consisted of everyone's ancestors
  • Tian

Eastern Zhou:

• During Spring and Autumn, the Zhou King was still in charge of religion
• Personators used as tool to help with sacrifices to ancestors
  • acted as ancestors in rituals

Warring States:

Confucianism

• Based on the teachings of Confucius that are collected in the Analects
• Fundamentally about relationships
  • Father-Son
  • Elder Brother-Younger Brother
  • Husband-Wife
  • Friend-Friend
  • Ruler-Subject
  • Relationships from most important to least: self, family, friends, society
• Confucian Virtues
  • Ren-consideration
  • Filial Piety-loyal to your parents
  • Propriety-good manners
  • Reciprocity-negative golden rule
  • Culture-knowing and appreciating art in all of its forms
  • Man who exemplifies all of these is a Junzi (Gentleman)
• Virtue is extremely important

Daoism

• Based on teachings of Laozi captured in the Daodejing (Taoteching)
• The Dao is the way
• Yin and Yang two opposite but complementary forces in the universe
• Water a common metaphor
• Daoist Virtues
  • Effortlessness-"Go with the flow," do everything and yet nothing
  • Simplicity-live humbly
  • Gentleness-pacifism, non-violence
  • Relativity-Avoid thinking in divisions,look for connections and balance
• Taken to the extreme as religion

Han

• Government based on Confucianism
• Priests led public festivals

Persia:

Assyrians:

• Polytheistic Religion centralized by the worship of Ashur

New Babylonians:

• Polytheistic
• Some ceremonies relied on participation from the King
• High god was the sun god Marduk
  • Nabonidus worships moon god Sin
    • Parallels to Akhenaten worshiping Aten (Egypt)
• Not Religiously Tolerant
  • Babylonian captivity for the Jews
  • Destroy first temple
  • Begin Jewish diaspora

Medes and Lydians:

• Polytheistic

Persians:

• Many different religions in the Persian Empire:
  • Most were polytheistic
  • Except:
    • Israel practiced Judaism-monotheistic
    • most of the people in the homeland of Fars practiced Zoroastrianism- monotheistic
• Fars:
  • formerly Polytheistic
    • Led by priests called Magi
    • different burial types
      • Orthodox- leave bodies out for animals to eat
      • Upper class- expensive stone burials
      • Middle class- dipped body in wax to preserve it
      • Lower class- Buried in shallow ground
  • Predominantly Zoroastrianism (created by the prophet Zoroaster)
    • Monotheistic religion that emphasizes the cosmic struggle between good and evil
    • Ahuramazda ("Wise Lord") is the one, true god
    • Good will eventually triumph and all will be judged
      • Avesta- texts of Zoroastrianism
• Religious Tolerance:
  • Let other cultures practice religions and helped them if necessary (Babylonians)
  • allowed variations of Zoroastrianism
  • Helped the Jews rebuild Solomon's temple

Connections:

• Kings were involved in religious affairs:
  • E-Pharaoh as Horus to Osiris
  • C-Shang-oracle bones and ancestors-Son of Heaven
  • P-Ethical monotheism with respect of other religions
    • gave power
• Conceptions of afterlifes and proper burials:
  • E-Mummification and the steps of the night; tombs
  • C-tombs (Shi Huangdi); jade burial suits
  • P-tombs; varying degrees of burial traditions in Zoroastrianism
• Good will triumph:
  • E-Osiris vs. Seth
  • C-virtue lets one be king (Mandate of Heaven)
  • P-Ahuramazda and good will win, everyone will be judge

Greece:

• Bronze Age Greece:

  • bull leaping
  • snake goddesses
• More with rituals, not morality and belief in the concepts:

• Plato's Theory of Ideas:

  • higher realm of ideas where there are perfect versions of yourself with perfect souls
  • you are an imperfect version of yourself
  • souls are eternal
  • Demiurge = creator that makes the people
  • Idea of Good = gives purpose to the universe and provides an ethical principle by which to guide our lives

• Greek and Roman gods:

  • Zeus (Jupiter)
    • Having killed his father Cronos, Zeus became ruler of the gods after drawing lots for the position with his brothers Poseidon and Hades. As lord of the sky, Zeus wields the thunderbolt and strikes down those who displease him or break their vows. He is married to Hera, but has numerous affairs and resultant offspring. He is portrayed as a mature bearded man.
  • Poseidon (Neptune)
    • Lord of the sea, Poseidon is a wrathful, moody god, who carries a trident and is often accompanied by sea nymphs and ocean creatures. He created horses as part of an unsuccessful bid for Demeter’s heart.
  • Hades (Pluto)
    • Lord of the underworld, a gray and lifeless realm of the dead, Hades seeks to increase the number of his subjects. He abducted Demeter’s daughter, Persephone, to be his wife, and she resides with him for the winter months. He is also associated with precious metals that are mined from the earth.
  • Demeter (Ceres)
    • Goddess of vegetation and fertility, Demeter had many lovers including her brother Zeus with whom she bore Persephone. When Hades stole Persephone away to be his bride, Demeter’s grief left the earth barren. Zeus mediated an agreement the result of which was that Persephone would spend only half of each year in the underworld—thus the agricultural seasons.
  • Hera (Juno)
    • Jealous wife and sister of Zeus, Hera is the protector of marriage and married women. She schemes against Zeus’ plans and punishes those with whom he falls in love. During the Trojan war, she goes to great lengths to help bring about Troy’s defeat.
  • Hestia (Vesta)
    • A timid, virgin goddess, who is never embroiled in the intrigues of the other gods, Hestia watches over the hearth at the center of every household. She is associated with the family.
  • Athena (Minerva)
    • The daughter of Zeus, Athena sprang full grown and armed as a warrior from Zeus’ head after he swallowed the Titaness Metis. She is a virgin goddess known for wisdom, reason, and bravery. She is the patron goddess of Athens, and is sometimes shown with an owl. She supports the Greeks during the Trojan War.
  • Ares (Mars)
    • The son of Zeus and Hera, Ares is god of war and a bully. He delights in killing and pillaging, but is sometimes cowardly. Hephaestus catches him in an adulterous liason with Aphrodite, and exposes him to ridicule.
  • Apollo (Apollo)
    • Son of Zeus and twin brother of Artemis, Apollo is the god of music, dance, healing, light, and the arts. He is often shown as an archer or playing a lyre. Everyday he drives the sun across the sky in a chariot. His most important shrine was at Delphi, where he would inspire a priestess (the oracle) to prophesy. He supported the Trojans against the Greeks.
  • Artemis (Diana)
    • The virgin goddess of the hunt, Artemis is associated with chastity and the moon. She is Apollo’s twin sister, and like him, is often shown carrying bow and arrows. She supports the Trojans during the war.
  • Hephaestus (Vulcan)
    • Born the son of Hera and Zeus, Hephaestus is lame and ugly, yet an enormously skilled craftsman. He uses a volcano as his forge to craft armor and weapons for the gods. He is kind and peace-loving.
  • Aphrodite (Venus)
    • Goddess of love, desire, and beauty, Aphrodite is married to Hephaestus, takes Ares as her lover, and owns a magic girdle that makes all men lust for her. There are two different tales of her birth. In one she is born of Zeus, and in the other she emerges from the sea foam on a scallop shell after Uranus’ severed genitals are tossed into the sea. She fights on the Trojan side of the war.
  • Hermes (Mercury)
    • Patron of commerce and thievery, Hermes is the clever messenger of the gods. He is god of sleep, and escorts the dead to the underworld. In art he is usually shown wearing a helmet and winged sandals.
  • Dionysus (Bacchus)
    • A later addition to the Greek pantheon and the result of another of Zeus’ many affairs, Dionysus was the god of wine and fertility. Like the grape vine, he suffered death and was resurrected. He freed people’s emotions and encouraged wild partying wherever he went. Early Greek drama (tragedy) seems to have grown out of his worship.

Rome:

• Vestile Virgins:

  • 5 girls/women who serve the goddess Vesta
  • make sure the fire in her temple never goes out
  • 30 years--must remain chaste
    • allowed to marry after their term is done
  • usually from wealthy patrician families
  • watched over by the high priest (who was the emperor during the empire)
  • the scandal
    • according to ancient rule, the vestal virgins are to remain chaste whilst serving or else they are to be buried alive
    • during Diocletian's rule, when 3 of the girls did not follow this guideline, they were indeed buried alive

• Divination:

  • augury:
    • bird flight pattern interpertations
      • Romulus and Remus and the founding of Rome
      • sacred chickens of the army
      • sacred geese and the temple of Juno
  • auspices:
    • examining the entrails of slain animals for omens

• Priesthoods:

  • part of the path to advancement
  • entails:
    • doing proper rituals--ensure favor of the gods towards the state
    • not about what you personally believe--mos maiorum
    • advances you in politics--you can influence politics by how you interpret omens
    • prestigious position
    • can be held simultaneously with other political positions
    • title: Auger

• Christianity:

  • through the ages:
    • Trajan-Pliny Letters:
      • letters between Emperor Trajan and governor Pliny discussing how to deal with Christians
      • refusal to worship emperor was seen as disrespectful and unlawful
      • Trajan advocated to ask them, and if they were Christian they would be punished, but if they declared they were not and proved it so, they would be pardoned
    • Diocletian:
      • thought christians were the reason for the downfall
      • --> he wanted to kill them
        • but, as a result more converted
      • persecution was to restore the pax deorum
      • feeds them to animals as public entertainment
      • burned books, targeted leaders
    • Constantine
      • Liked the Christians because his father had good relations with Christian leaders and the good relations just carried over to him
      • Conference Nicaea:
        • gathered all the leaders of christianity to Nicaea to explain what they believed
        • --> what they came up with was called the nicene creed
      • **persecuted Arian Christians who believed that Jesus was human and adopted by God